Teacher Expectations

I believe that teacher expectations (and learner expectations) strongly influence the learning that occurs or doesn't occur in classrooms. The influence of expectations on performance is an area unrelated to any of the research that I've done so far and it's an area I might consider for future research. Raising a student's expectations for his or her own performance may be the single greatest positive impact a teacher can have on the future of a child.

Research on Teacher Expectations

Research regarding the influence of teacher expectations on student performance cited on pp. 97-102 of Jones, V., & Jones, L. (2007). Comprehensive classroom management: Creating communities of support and solving problems, eighth edition. Boston: Pearson Allyn & Bacon:

• Reyes, P., Scribner, J., & Scribner, A. (Eds.). (1999). Lessons from high-performing Hispanic schools: Creating learning communities. New York: Teachers College Press.
• Weinstein, R., Gregory, A., & Strambler, M. (2004). Intractable self-fulfilling prophecies: Brown v Board of Education. American Psychologist, 59, 511-520.
• Pianta, R., Howes, C., Burchinal, M., Bryant, D., Clifford, R., Early, D., & Barbarin, O. (2004). Features of pre-kindergarten programs, classrooms, and teachers: Do they predict observed classroom quality and child-teacher interaction? Manuscript submitted for publication.
• Noguera, P. (2003). Schools, prisons, and social implications of punishment: Rethinking disciplinary practices. Theory into Practice, 42, 341-350.
• Frericks, A. (1974, March). Labeling of students by prospective teachers. Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association Convention, Chicago. [According to Jones & Jones, Frericks found that teachers viewing a group of students that they were told was low performing described their behaviors more negatively than when they were told they were "regular" students.]
• Spencer-Hall, D. (1981). Looking behind the teacher's back. Elementary School Journal, 81, 281-289.
• Sadker, D., & Sadker, M. (1985). Is the o.k. classroom o.k.? Phi Delta Kappan, 66, 358-361. [Teachers treating boys and girls differently.]
• Kahle, J. (1990). Why girls don't know. In M. Rowe (Ed.), What research says to the science teacher: The process of knowing. Washington, DC: National Science Testing Association.
• Lee, V. (1991, August). Sexism in single-sex and co-educational secondary school classrooms. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Sociological Association, Cincinnati, OH.
• American Association of University Women Educational Foundation. (1992). The AAUW report: How schools shortchange girls. Washington, DC: National Education Association.
• Cooper, H., & Good, T. (1983). Pygmalion grows up. New York: Longman. [Ways teachers treat low achievers differently]
• Brophy, J. (1983). Research on the self-fulfilling prophecy and teacher expectations. Journal of Educational Psychology, 75, 631-661.

And from page 100 of the Jones & Jones text (quoted from Educational Psychology by Anita Woolfolk:

Guidelines for Avoiding the Negative Effects of Teacher Expectations

• Use information from tests, cumulative folders, and other teachers very carefully.
• Be flexible in your use of grouping strategies.
• Make sure all the students are challenged.
• Be especially careful about how you respond to low-achieving students during class discussions.
• Use materials that show a wide range of ethnic groups.
• Be fair in evaluation and disciplinary procedures.
• Communicate to all students that you believe they can learn - and mean it.
• Involve all students in learning tasks and in privileges.
• Monitor your nonverbal behavior.

Other Avenues to Pursue

Although I've held strong beliefs about expectation for a long time, it was a recent episode of Radio Lab that brought these thoughts to the fore. Below are some references for items from the episode.

The NYTimes reported on a study showing an increase in test scores of African Americans after the arrival of Obama on the national scene. Here's the current reference for their study: Marx, D. M., Ko, S. J., & Friedman, R. A. (in press). The Obama effect: How a salient role model reduces race-based performance differences. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology.

Claude Steele was interviewed about his research on the same episode of Radio Lab. He has looked at the effects of expectation on the performance of African Americans and on the performance of women in testing situations. His work is listed here. Here's a recent reference to his work:
Aronson, J. & Steele, C. M. Stereotypes and the fragility of academic competence, motivation, and self-concept, (chapter to appear in A. Elliot & C. Dweck (Eds.) The Handbook of Competence.

I'd like to do some work in these areas, or at the very least, keep up with what these researchers are doing.